Forensic psychology is the application of psychology to the legal system . The use of scientific knowledge and techniques to address legal issues in criminal, civil, contractual, or other court processes is known as forensic psychology.(Source: )[/2][/3]
Research on several psychology-law topics, such as jury selection, minimizing systematic racism in criminal law, evaluating the credibility of eyewitness testimony, determining a person’s suitability for trial, or evaluating military veterans for benefits related to service-connected disabilities, is included in the field of forensic psychology.*[4] Numerous psychology subdisciplines, including social, clinical, experimental, counseling, and neuropsychology, are mentioned in the American Psychological Association’s Specialty Guidelines for Forensic Psychologists.(5)
History of Forensic psychology
Criminal profiling originally surfaced in the 19th century when forensic surgeon and physician Thomas Bond used it to investigate the Jack the Ripper case.[6] Hugo Münsterberg, the first director of Harvard’s psychological laboratory and a pupil of Wilhelm Wundt, one of the first experimental psychologists, wrote On the Witness Stand in the first decade of the 20th century.[2–8]
Münsterberg made an effort to show how psychological science may be used in court cases in the publication.In [9] Sigmund Freud also talked about the connection between psychopathological processes and criminal behavior.[/2] Other notable pioneers in the field of forensic psychology are William Healy and Lightner Witmer.10]
William Marston, a psychologist, devised the lie detector in 1917.11][12] James A. Frye’s attorneys requested that Marston bring his lie detector to court in the Frye v. United States lawsuit six years after it was invented in the hopes that Marston’s contraption would establish their client’s innocence. Since the scientific community does not generally recognize lie detection, the results were not considered admissible. As a result, the Frye standard was developed, which stipulates that scientific evidence can only be accepted if it is well-known among other scientists.13]
The United States Supreme Court first cited expert psychological findings in the 1954 decision of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka [14].In [15] Following this, the prevalence of psychological mechanisms in courtrooms started to be seen as advantageous.[15] A few years following the Brown decision, D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals Justice David Bazelon declared that psychologists might legally testify as medical experts regarding mental disease.[/3]In [15]In [16]
The American Psychology–Law Society was established in 1969 and became Division 41 of the American Psychological Association in 1980.In [15] An increasing number of organizations backed the use of psychology in the legal system as the profession expanded. The American Board of Forensic Psychology was established in 1976, and in 1985 it merged with the American Board of Professional Psychology.In [15]
Later, conferences and organizations like the American Academy of Forensic Psychology and the National Invitational Conference on Education and Training in Forensic Psychology contributed to the strengthening of the field’s development.In 15 The American Psychological Association officially acknowledged forensic psychology as a professional specialty in 2001.In [15]
Current forensic psychology research employs legal situations to apply psychological techniques. A number of publications on false confessions were published in the 1980s by Saul Kassin, a psychology professor at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice in New York.
Five youths who had been wrongfully convicted of raping a jogger were able to get their convictions overturned thanks in large part to one of Kassin’s articles. 18] The phrase “investigative psychology,” which refers to forensic psychology’s subspecialty of criminal behavior and the investigative process, was coined by David V. Canter at the University of Liverpool.11] Canter contributed to the killings by helping to identify the killers through psychological profiling of the Railway Rapists.19] William Stern, a psychologist from the 20th century, carried out a number of studies on eyewitness reliability and consistency.
Forensic psychology has become more well-known in the media lately. Forensic psychology information can be found in a number of recent Netflix docuseries, such as Making a Murderer and Sins of Our Mother. The discipline of criminal profiling has gained widespread popularity because to other TV shows and films like Criminal Minds, Manhunter, Mindhunter, and Silence of the Lambs.
This is especially true inside the FBI’s Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU).21] Ted Bundy’s punishment is one well-known instance of a forensic psychology case.23] Before his trial in 1980, he underwent evaluations from several psychologists to establish his capacity to testify in court.24] Based on the findings of the several psychological assessments, Ted Bundy was deemed competent to testify in court.24]
Training and education
Basic and applied psychology are both included in forensic psychology. A Ph.D. or Psy.D. in clinical psychology, counseling psychology, social psychology, organizational psychology, school psychology, or experimental psychology from recognized universities is a qualification that forensic psychologists can possess.Reference [25]
It also requires two years of supervised experience in their specialty.Reference [25] Although states, territories, and the District of Columbia in the United States need psychologists to be licensed in the state in which they plan to practice, there are no particular license requirements to become a forensic psychologist.[/2] There are various options for forensic psychology-specific certification.[/2]
In the US, there are 65 forensic psychology degree programs available. In-state tuition is $9,475 while out-of-state tuition is $25,856 on average.(26]
The area of forensic psychology offers a wide spectrum of compensation to its practitioners.In [27] Clinical-forensic psychologists in the US make between $125,000 and $149,999 year on average, with entry-level salaries starting at $50,000 and going up to over $355,000.(28)
Practice and research in forensic psychology
Practice/direct service
To determine a person’s psychological condition for legal purposes, forensic psychologists do evaluations and assessments.29][/30]
These assessments may be performed for a variety of purposes, including gathering data for criminal court cases (like insanity or incompetence), criminal sentencing or parole hearings (likely involving a potential intellectual disability that avoids sentencing or lowers one’s risk of recidivism), family court cases (like child custody or parental termination cases), or civil court cases (like personal injury, competence to manage one’s financial affairs, and psychological autopsies particularly concerning testamentary capacity).(31 )33] These experts are also capable of doing assessments on school threats.Reference [25]
In addition, forensic psychologists frequently have to testify in court and support judges, lawyers, and other court employees in legal matters. This affords them the chance to offer their utmost assistance.33] The majority of arguments contend that these forensic psychological tests do not qualify as medical treatments, while there is substantial disagreement on the matter.34]
It is crucial to remember that forensic psychologists do not decide on “ultimate issues” like a veteran’s ability to stand trial or whether they have a handicap related to their military service. Instead, they are in charge of evaluating and reporting evaluation results.(35)36] Rather, the court that commissioned the evaluation reviews and rules upon the data that the expert evaluator submitted.36]
Treatment
In both criminal and civil trials, individuals in need of or requesting psychiatric interventions may be asked to see forensic psychologists. Forensic psychologists can assist those who have already received a sentence in criminal cases to lessen the possibility that they would commit the same crime again. In these situations, additional treatments are often included, particularly for anger management, mental illness, sex offenders, and substance use disorders.(31 )
Regarding civil processes, forensic psychology assists families dealing with matters involving divorce, child custody, and psychological harm resulting from traumatic experiences. Private offices, mental health facilities, and forensic and state psychiatric institutions are common places for treatment.(37)
Consultations
By offering consultations, forensic psychologists are able to use their knowledge of psychology and research to better understand human behavior—including that of criminals, witnesses, victims, juries, and other legal professionals—as well as the effects of trauma and other life events.
A forensic psychologist who works as a consultant may be involved in court proceedings by reviewing court records (which may include a defendant’s psychosocial history or an assessment of mitigating or aggravating factors in a case); acting as a consultant for juries (convening focus groups, shadow juries, mock juries, or assisting with voir dire proceedings); and providing assessment without testimony (where the results of a defendant’s evaluation are withheld from the prosecution, enabling the defense team to formulate a strategy for a possible case);
Law enforcement consultations might be in the form of helping with hiring practices and processes, creating criminal profiles, assessing returning officers’ psychological fitness, or just providing knowledge on certain criminal habits.21]37] Although there are many techniques and strategies associated with criminal profiling, the effectiveness and precision of criminal profiling as a whole are frequently questioned and criticized.37]39].
A few popular methods are the intuitive method, which includes Tukey’s Behavioral Evidence Analysis, and the scientific method, which includes the FBI’s Crime Scene Analysis and Canter’s Investigative Psychology.(31 )(40)(41)42]
Psychologists who assist lawyers and other legal professionals with case preparation are known as trial consultants. This covers witness preparation, case strategy development, and jury selection.43]In [44] The finest advice that forensic psychologists who serve as trial consultants may give their clients comes from research. Trial consultants confront numerous ethical dilemmas because they are frequently employed by one side in a trial.
It is the psychologist’s duty to maintain objectivity during consultations. Stated differently, the consultant is prohibited from endorsing a position and then leaving out or fabricating data that would favor that position. The forensic psychologist considers the obligations of providing consultation on a case against the ethical standards established before accepting it.
Focal psychologists are also actively involved in providing expert testimony concerning psychological concerns.45](31 ) As their name implies, expert witnesses are believed to be “experts” in a certain issue and possess specialized information about it, unlike fact witnesses, who are limited to testifying about what they know or have witnessed.
As such, expert witnesses can express deeper knowledge about a situation or topic.[46]- Clinical psychology experience and familiarity with the legislation governing the court in which forensic psychologists are to testify are prerequisites for their status as expert witnesses.(47)
Expert testimony is governed by procedural and legal regulations, which include the requirements that the evidence be pertinent to the case, the expert’s methodology be credible and trustworthy, and the evidence support the fact-finder.45] Opposing counsel may depose an expert to find out what they intend to say in court. If there are concerns about the expert’s validity, reliability, or relevance, attorneys have the chance to oppose the expert’s admissibility (in the United States, the rules vary by country and jurisdiction).45] The judge uses a voir dire procedure to qualify the expert witness and decides whether or not to admit them, regardless of who summons them.37]